THE MASTING AND RIGGING OF SHIPS
INTRODUCTION
It should come as no surprise that the greater part
of a book written on the rigging of ships is devoted to vessels propelled
solely by sail. The Introduction that follows is not intended to be a historical
treatise on the development of vessels from antiquity to the present time.
Rather, its purpose is to identify some of the factors that have caused rapid
technological change in shipbuilding and the effect they have had on the
various shipbuilding trades. Since the introduction of iron and steel,
shipyards building in wood have been in decline; with those building sailing
vessels exclusively being the first to go.
The
iron steamer Great Britain of 1845 introduced the screw propeller as a
propulsive device for ocean‑going vessels. This ship, of length 88 m
(288.7ft), breadth 15.5 m (50.9ft) and draught 5.49 m (18.0ft), marked the
beginning of a whole new era in steam navigation at a time when wooden
shipbuilding had reached its zenith.
During
the first half of the last century the Americans gradually drifted away from
the old traditions by constructing their ships larger and with finer lines than
ordinary merchant vessels. Built using an abundant and cheap resource of timber, these so-called 'clippers'
soon became celebrated and favoured everywhere due to their great capacity and
speed. It was only a matter of time before other nations began constructing
similar large wooden vessels for their own merchant fleets.
A
scarcity of suitable timber in Britain prompted British shipbuilders to pursue
the construction of steamers and
sailing vessels from iron at an early stage. By 1837, the first iron ocean‑going
vessel, the Rainbow, was already in service. A major problem with iron
in the early days was that the immersed hull quickly became heavily fouled with
marine growth; particularly when journeying in warmer waters. Such was the loss
in speed due to fouling that, initially; some reservations were expressed as to
the suitability of iron vessels for extended voyages. Certainly, their
performance compared poorly with copper‑sheathed wooden vessels, where
the fouling of the sheathing was negligible, even after long periods at sea.
By the 1860's the above objections to iron had led the British to develop so‑called 'composite' vessels in which the transverse and primary longitudinal members as well as the diagonal tie‑plates were made of iron and the shell and deck were timber planked. Expensive to construct, these vessels were planked with high quality timbers such as teak and sheathed in copper. From 1864 on, composite vessels were awarded the highest classification from Lloyds—that of 20 years—due to the reduced risk of fouling which dogged iron vessels.
A
number of composite vessels were constructed specifically for the tea trade
between China and Britain. These 'tea clippers' were built for speed to achieve
quick passages both out and home again. Over the years a keen rivalry developed
between the vessels in this trade. This culminated in the never‑to‑be‑forgotten
race between the clippers Ariel, Taitsing, Taeping, Serica
and Fiery‑Cross. The first three‑named vessels were
composite‑built while the other two were wooden. All were of modest
dimensions by today's standards—under 60 m (196.9 ft) in length and 900 tons
gross.
The famous clippers of the 1850's and 60's engaged in
the Australian trade sailed outbound in ballast carrying passengers. Being
favourably laden, these vessels were able, on occasion, to achieve passages
superior to those of modern sailing vessels. Thermopylae, for example,
took 61 days from The Channel to Melbourne. Today a passage of 70 to 90 days is
regarded as being very good—remembering, of course, that this is for a vessel
heavily laden.
On the continent wooden vessels continued to be built
in numbers—timber being not as scarce there as it was in Britain. The
exceptions were the Dutch, however, who constructed most of their vessels for
the colonial trade using the composite system.
Deep‑sea sailing vessels of the past carried
large crews to handle the extensive sail plans characteristic of the times,
studdingsails included. With such a large area of sail, these vessels were able
to make good passages in light airs. Subsequent innovations such as double
topsails and various ingenious patented methods for self‑reefing topsails
were introduced with the aim of reducing the number of crew required. Some
sailing vessels were even fitted with auxiliary screw propulsion.
While improvements were being made to the design and
construction of sailing vessels, progress was also being made in the science of
navigation. Closer attention was given to the statistical observation of sea
conditions, wind strength and direction, temperature and barometric pressure
prevailing at various parts of the oceans throughout the four seasons. Using
this information, the optimum routes, both outbound and home, could be
determined for any time of year. If a planned course deviated greatly from the
normal routes, the duration of the voyage could still be reduced by combining
astute observation with a knowledge of the local meteorological conditions to
meet with fair winds.
As suitable anti‑fouling compositions for
coating ship's bulls were developed, iron sailing vessels became more and more
popular.
At the same time that improvements were being made to
the design and operation of sailing vessels, steamers were also evolving. The
big advantage of self‑propelled vessels was, of course, their ability to
steer a direct course from part to port, independent of the direction and
vagaries of the wind. This enabled costs to be lowered. Sailing vessels
continued to remain competitive in the longer trades, however, because the
crude machinery of early steamers consumed vast quantities of coal.
The opening of the Suez Canal in 1869 shortened the
voyage between Europe and India, East Africa and Australia. Via the canal,
ordinary tramp steamers could now make such voyages in 30 to 40 days. Sailing
vessels were excluded from any benefit, however, and so a major portion of the
trades that had once belonged to them was lost.
The
result of the various developments described above was that the composite
system in new construction gradually fell into decline. Nowadays, apart from
some naval cruisers and pleasure vessels, this form of construction is only
occasionally still used, mainly in the United States and Sweden.
As early as the middle of the last century, the German
seaports of Hamburg and Bremen operated well-established sailing ship fleets.
Among the more important trades was the carriage of emigrants from Europe to
various American destinations. In 1847 the "Hamburg‑Amerikanische
Paketfahrt‑Aktien‑Gesellschaft" was founded, inaugurating its
passenger services in wooden vessels. By 1856, the company had introduced its
first steamer, the Borussia, into regular service. She was soon to be
followed by the Hammonia and others. The company 'Norddeutsche Lloyd'
began operations in 1858 with the introduction of four steamers Bremen, New
York, Weser and Hudson. Initially, both steamship companies
faced many difficulties. As well as each company losing a ship by fire; vessels
of both frequently sustained considerable damage through the rigours of
service.
These mishaps, when added to other expenses, permitted
sailing vessels to remain competitive against steamers in the emigrant trade.
Even as late as the mid 1870's, newspapers in the abovementioned German parts
still advertised "the most renowned, fast‑sailing, copper fastened
and sheathed, vessel
Baltimore,
….."
It was inevitable, however, that this trade, once so
lucrative for sailing vessels, would be lost—not because of some radical innovation
or event, but merely through the steady improvement of steamers and their
machinery. It is not difficult to understand why emigrants favoured steamers
over sailing vessels. The arrival of the steamer at its destination was fixed
to within a reasonable" degree of certainty. As the importance placed on
quick passages increased, so‑called *express" steamers became more
and more popular. These vessels were able to charge a premium for the shorter
passage, even though less of the fare went toward the price of provisions. The
premium even extended to steerage passengers.
The carriage of emigrants by sail has long since
ceased. It was fortunate that none of the shipping companies collapsed;
probably due to the introduction of modern cargo carrying sailing vessels. Of
about 1000 tons gross and 7 to 8 metres (23‑26 ft) draught, these vessels
helped regain much of the ground previously lost.
A
different story can be told for the carriage of cargo, however. For decades
steamers have competed with sailing vessels without being able to oust the
latter from the seas. Large sailing vessels carrying bulk cargoes such as rice,
coal, saltpeter, guano and cased petroleum, deep‑sea via Cape Horn and
the Cape of Good Hope have retained much of their former share of the market.
Intermediate‑sized vessels, however, have not fared so well despite not
having to transfer cargoes to and from smaller vessels, lighters, etc. Small
vessels still find employment in the local coastal and tidal flats trades,
notwithstanding the increase in lighterage operations. The one time profitable
carriage of petroleum in barrels has long since passed to the modern tanker.
Steel as a shipbuilding
material for merchant vessels began
to make an appearance in the early 1890's. Although initial acceptance of steel
was slow, the development of cheaper and better methods of manufacture,
together with the reduction in scantlings permitted by its greater strength,
resulted in the eventual widespread use of the new material. The following
table compiled by Lloyd's Register lists the shipping of the world during the
final decade of the last century. The trend toward the increased use of steel
is clearly illustrated.
The table includes all vessels of 100 tons and over
(gross tonnage for steamers and net tonnage for sailing vessels). The figures
apply to the twelve months between July and June the following year.
Referring to rows 2 and 7 of the table, it is clear
that the advantages of reduced hull weight and correspondingly greater
deadweight capacity which accompanied the use of steel were more quickly
exploited in steamers than in sailing vessels.
As already mentioned, the composite system soon became
obsolete for the construction of merchant vessels. In Europe, iron and wood are
also falling into disuse as shipbuilding materials due to the greater weight
and, in the case of wood, smaller volumetric capacity and relatively shorter
working life of vessels so built. In America, the land of forests, wooden
shipbuilding is still practised. The enormous size of wooden vessels
constructed there can be gauged from the particulars of the four‑masted
barque Roanoke. Launched in 1892, Roanoke has a length overall of
100.88 m (331.0 ft), length of keel 94.8 m (311.0 ft), beam 15.0 m (49.2 ft),
draught 8.23 m (27.0 ft) and deadweight of 5000 tonnes. The Americans have also
built a number of large five‑ and six‑masted schooners, and even a
seven-master. Among these, completed at the beginning of this century, are the
following:
‑ two six‑masted schooners, George W. Wells
and Eleanor A. Percy of length 100 m (328.1 ft), beam 14‑15
m (45.9‑49.2 ft) and depth 7‑7.5 m ( 23.0‑24.6
ft).
‑ the steel seven‑masted schooner Thomas
W. Lawson of length 123 m (403.5 ft), beam 15.24 m (50.0 ft), depth 10.46 m
(34.3 ft) and tonnage 5218 gross.
The decline in the numbers of wooden ships can be seen
in rows 4 and 9 of the table. This can be directly attributed to the decline in
American shipbuilding.
Rows 5 and 10 clearly illustrate the steady increase
in the average tonnage of ships, particularly that of steamers. The downward
trend in the total tonnage of sailing vessels during the final decade of the
last century is shown in row 10 of the table.
A list of German registered merchant vessels of a
gross tonnage over 50 m3 (141.5 GRT), compiled in the first half of 1902 from
the quarterly statistics of the German Empire dated 1st January
1901, contained 3883 vessels totalling 2,826,400 tons gross and 1,941,645 tons
net. Of theses 2493 were sailing or non-propelled vessels totalling 640,510
tons gross and 593,770 tons net. Steamers amounted to 1390 vessels of 2,185,890
tons gross and 1,347,875 tons net. Analysis of the sailing and non-propelled
vessels listed in the above‑mentioned
statistics reveals 45 vessels with four or more masts, 296 three‑masters,
1377 two‑masters, 552 single‑masters and 223 non‑propelled
barges without any masts except those for working cargo. Included among the
vessels with four or more masts was the Hamburg registered five‑masted
barque Potosi of 4026 tons gross—at that time the largest sailing vessel
in the world. (Presently, the
five‑masted fully rigged ship Preussen of 5081 tons gross holds
this title).
|
|
|
1890/91 |
1891/92 |
1892/93 |
1893/94 |
1894/95 |
|||||
|
No. |
Hull Material |
No of Ships |
Tonnage |
No of Ships |
Tonnage |
No of Ships |
Tonnage |
No of Ships |
Tonnage |
No of Ships |
Tonnage |
|
Steamers |
|||||||||||
|
1 |
Iron |
7606 |
8252841 |
7531 |
8058848 |
7439 |
7914687 |
7238 |
7661124 |
7099 |
7432890 |
|
2 |
Steel |
2941 |
5145588 |
3516 |
609411 |
3943 |
6918215 |
4502 |
7986235 |
4994 |
9038000 |
|
3 |
Composite |
152 |
42873 |
148 |
41429 |
162 |
46555 |
164 |
58424 |
156 |
65170 |
|
4 |
Wood |
1006 |
375207 |
998 |
363315 |
1014 |
364961 |
1003 |
360419 |
1007 |
360911 |
|
5 |
Total Steam |
11705 |
13816509 |
12193 |
14562003 |
12558 |
15264418 |
12907 |
16066202 |
13256 |
16887971 |
|
Sailing Vessels |
|||||||||||
|
6 |
Iron |
1824 |
1963109 |
1807 |
1924915 |
1762 |
1879185 |
1703 |
1814267 |
1671 |
1778671 |
|
7 |
Steel |
349 |
512865 |
598 |
916683 |
681 |
1028118 |
759 |
1142750 |
801 |
1185101 |
|
8 |
Composite |
136 |
99488 |
125 |
91154 |
122 |
87735 |
115 |
83839 |
114 |
82123 |
|
9 |
Wood |
18312 |
6547987 |
17343 |
6199753 |
16887 |
5998919 |
15237 |
5462438 |
14526 |
5173766 |
|
10 |
Total Sail |
20621 |
9123449 |
19873 |
9132505 |
19452 |
8993957 |
17814 |
8503294 |
17112 |
8219661 |
|
11 |
Grand Total |
32326 |
22939958 |
32066 |
23694508 |
32010 |
24258375 |
30721 |
24569496 |
30368 |
25107632 |
|
|
|
1895/96 |
1896/97 |
1897/98 |
1898/99 |
1899/1900 |
|||||
|
No. |
Hull Material |
No of Ships |
Tonnage |
No of Ships |
Tonnage |
No of Ships |
Tonnage |
No of Ships |
Tonnage |
No of Ships |
Tonnage |
|
Steamers |
|||||||||||
|
1 |
Iron |
6959 |
7186852 |
6865 |
6935067 |
6735 |
6664283 |
6502 |
6194102 |
6262 |
5915714 |
|
2 |
Steel |
5525 |
10137431 |
6102 |
11253129 |
6702 |
12417281 |
7507 |
14254522 |
8286 |
15999406 |
|
3 |
Composite |
166 |
63321 |
168 |
64124 |
180 |
67341 |
193 |
69885 |
192 |
72107 |
|
4 |
Wood |
1002 |
350221 |
1048 |
354292 |
1084 |
362387 |
1122 |
359237 |
1158 |
382131 |
|
5 |
|||||||||||